Unit 608: Computer Architecture and Organization

1. Introduction to Computer Architecture and Organization

1.1 Basic Concepts

• Definition of computer architecture vs computer organization
• Role of hardware and software in computing systems

1.2 Von Neumann Architecture

• Components: memory, CPU, input/output
• Stored program concept
• Data and instruction flow

1.3 Relationship Between Hardware and Software

• Machine language and assembly language
• Hardware abstraction layers
• Impact on system design and performance

2. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

2.1 CPU Structure

• Control Unit (CU)
• Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
• Registers: general purpose and special purpose

2.2 Instruction Cycle

• Fetch, decode, execute, and store
• Role of program counter and instruction register

2.3 Execution of Instructions

• Types of instructions: data transfer, arithmetic, control
• Micro-operations and timing

3. Memory Hierarchy

3.1 Primary Memory

• RAM: volatile memory characteristics
• ROM and its uses

3.2 Cache Memory

• Purpose and importance
• Cache levels (L1, L2, L3)
• Cache mapping techniques: direct, associative, set associative

3.3 Secondary Storage

• Hard disk drives (HDD)
• Solid-state drives (SSD)
• Other storage types

3.4 Memory Management and Caching Principles

• Locality of reference
• Cache replacement policies
• Virtual memory basics

4. Input and Output (I/O) Systems

4.1 I/O Devices and Interfaces

• Types of input/output devices
• Communication interfaces and protocols

4.2 Data Transfer Mechanisms

• Programmed I/O
• Interrupt-driven I/O
• Direct Memory Access (DMA)

4.3 Interrupt Handling

• Interrupt types and priorities
• Interrupt vector and service routines

4.4 I/O Performance Optimization

• Buffering and spooling
• Device scheduling

5. Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)

5.1 Design and Characteristics

• Definition and role of ISA
• RISC vs CISC architectures

5.2 Instruction Formats

• Fixed and variable length
• Fields: opcode, operands, addressing modes

5.3 Addressing Modes

• Immediate, direct, indirect, register, indexed

5.4 Types of Instructions

• Data transfer, arithmetic/logic, control flow, system

5.5 Relationship Between ISA and CPU Design

• Impact on hardware complexity
• Influence on compiler design

6. Pipelining and Parallel Processing

6.1 Pipelining Concepts

• Pipeline stages: fetch, decode, execute, memory access, write-back
• Pipeline hazards: structural, data, control
• Techniques for hazard mitigation

6.2 Parallelism Types

• SIMD (Single Instruction Multiple Data)
• MIMD (Multiple Instruction Multiple Data)

6.3 Benefits and Challenges

• Throughput improvement
• Complexity and synchronization issues

7. Multiprocessor Systems

7.1 Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP)

• Architecture and characteristics

7.2 Distributed Memory Systems

• Concept and examples
• Communication between processors

7.3 Shared Memory Systems

• Memory coherence and consistency

7.4 Interconnection Networks

• Bus, crossbar, mesh networks
• Network topologies and performance

8. Performance Evaluation and Benchmarking

8.1 Performance Metrics

• Throughput, latency, CPI (cycles per instruction)

8.2 Benchmarking Methodologies

• Standard benchmarks (SPEC, LINPACK)
• Synthetic vs real-world benchmarks

8.3 Factors Affecting Performance

• CPU speed, memory hierarchy, I/O bandwidth

8.4 Techniques for Performance Improvement

• Hardware optimizations
• Software and compiler optimizations

9. Emerging Trends in Computer Architecture

9.1 Quantum Computing

• Basic principles
• Potential impact on computing

9.2 Neuromorphic Computing

• Brain-inspired architectures
• Applications and challenges

9.3 Energy-Efficient Designs

• Low-power architectures
• Dynamic voltage and frequency scaling

9.4 Impact of Emerging Technologies

• Integration with AI and machine learning
• Future directions in architecture design