Introduction to Ethics – Study Notes
1. What Is Ethics?
| Aspect |
Description |
| Definition |
The systematic study of what is right and wrong, good and bad, and how people ought to act. |
| Purpose |
Provides a framework for evaluating actions, policies, and character; guides personal conduct and social institutions. |
| Scope |
Individual behavior, professional practice, public policy, global issues (e.g., climate justice). |
| Key Question |
What should I do? (normative) vs. What do people actually do? (descriptive). |
2. Major Branches of Ethics
| Branch |
Focus |
Typical Questions |
| Meta‑ethics |
Nature of moral language and properties |
Are moral statements truth‑apt? What is the meaning of “good”? |
| Normative ethics |
Principles that determine right action |
Which moral theories best justify actions? |
| Applied ethics |
Practical application of moral principles |
How should we handle bio‑ethical dilemmas, AI, business conduct? |
| Descriptive ethics |
Empirical study of moral beliefs |
How do cultures differ in moral judgments? |
3. Core Moral Theories (Normative Ethics)
| Theory |
Central Idea |
Strengths |
Common Criticisms |
| Consequentialism (e.g., Utilitarianism) |
Morality judged by outcomes; maximize overall good. |
Clear decision rule; aligns with common intuition about results. |
May sacrifice individual rights; hard to predict consequences. |
| Deontology (Kantian) |
Duties and rules determine rightness; act according to universalizable maxims. |
Respects autonomy and rights; provides firm moral boundaries. |
Can be rigid; conflicts between duties are unresolved. |
| Virtue Ethics (Aristotelian) |
Focus on character traits; aim for eudaimonia (flourishing). |
Emphasizes moral development; context‑sensitive. |
Lacks concrete action‑guidance; depends on cultural notions of “virtue.” |
| Care Ethics |
Moral significance of relationships and empathy. |
Highlights interdependence; addresses gender bias in traditional theories. |
May be seen as too particularistic; less clear universal principles. |
| Contractarianism |
Morality arises from mutually beneficial agreements (social contract). |
Explains basis of law and cooperation. |
Assumes rational agreement; may ignore power imbalances. |
4. Fundamental Ethical Concepts
| Concept |
Explanation |
| Moral Right vs. Moral Good |
Right concerns duties/obligations; good concerns overall value or happiness. |
| Autonomy |
Respect for individuals’ capacity to make informed choices. |
| Beneficence |
Actively promoting others’ welfare. |
| Non‑maleficence |
Avoiding harm (the “do no harm” principle). |
| Justice |
Fair distribution of benefits and burdens; includes equality, equity, and rights. |
| Rights |
Claims or entitlements individuals possess (e.g., freedom of speech). |
| Moral Responsibility |
Accountability for actions and their consequences. |
5. Ethical Decision‑Making Framework
- Identify the problem – Clarify the moral issue and stakeholders.
- Gather relevant facts – Distinguish facts from values or assumptions.
- Determine applicable principles – Choose one or more ethical theories or codes (e.g., professional codes).
- Consider alternatives –