Introduction to Ethics – Study Notes
1. What Is Ethics?
| Aspect |
Description |
| Definition |
The systematic study of what is right and wrong, good and bad, in human conduct. |
| Purpose |
Provides a framework for evaluating actions, decisions, and policies; guides personal behavior and social institutions. |
| Scope |
Individual conduct, professional practice, public policy, and global issues. |
2. Major Branches of Ethics
| Branch |
Focus |
Key Questions |
| Normative Ethics |
How we should act; develops moral standards. |
What actions are morally right? What duties do we have? |
| Meta‑Ethics |
Nature of moral language and reasoning. |
What does “good” mean? Are moral truths objective or subjective? |
| Applied Ethics |
Practical application of moral principles. |
How do we resolve ethical dilemmas in medicine, business, environment, etc.? |
| Descriptive (or Comparative) Ethics |
Empirical study of moral beliefs across cultures. |
How do different societies conceive of right and wrong? |
3. Classic Ethical Theories
| Theory |
Core Idea |
Strengths |
Common Criticisms |
| Consequentialism (e.g., Utilitarianism) |
Moral value of an action = its outcomes. |
Simple decision rule; emphasizes welfare. |
May justify harmful means; difficult to predict all consequences. |
| Deontology (Kantian) |
Actions are right if they follow universal moral rules. |
Respects individual rights; clear duties. |
Can be rigid; conflicts between duties are problematic. |
| Virtue Ethics (Aristotelian) |
Moral life is about developing good character traits. |
Focuses on personal growth; contextual sensitivity. |
Lacks concrete decision‑procedures; cultural variation in virtues. |
| Care Ethics |
Moral reasoning rooted in relationships and empathy. |
Highlights interdependence; values emotional insight. |
May struggle with impartiality; less developed formal structure. |
| Contractualism |
Morality arises from mutually agreed principles. |
Emphasizes fairness and reciprocity. |
Requires agreement on “reasonable” persons; may ignore consequences. |
4. Fundamental Moral Concepts
| Concept |
Explanation |
| Duty |
Obligation to act (or refrain) based on moral law or rule. |
| Rights |
Claims or entitlements individuals possess, often protected by law. |
| Justice |
Fair distribution of benefits and burdens; includes distributive, procedural, and restorative dimensions. |
| Beneficence |
Actively promoting the well‑being of others. |
| Non‑maleficence |
Avoiding harm; “do no harm.” |
| Autonomy |
Respect for individuals’ capacity to make informed choices. |
| Utility |
Maximizing overall happiness or welfare (central to utilitarianism). |
5. Ethical Decision‑Making Framework (Step‑by‑Step)
- Identify the Facts – Gather all relevant information about the situation.
- Recognize the Ethical Issue – Pinpoint the moral conflict or dilemma.
- Determine the Stakeholders – List who will be affected and how.
- Apply Ethical Principles – Use one or more of the major theories or concepts (e.g., respect for autonomy, beneficence).
- Explore Alternatives – Generate possible courses of action and evaluate their consequences.
- Make a Decision – Choose the option that best aligns with the chosen ethical framework.
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