This topic introduces the field of criminology, covering its history, key concepts, theories, and methodologies used in the study of crime and criminal behavior.
Introduction to Criminology – Study Notes
| Aspect | Description |
|---|---|
| Definition | The scientific study of crime, criminal behavior, and the social response to crime. |
| Goal | Explain why crimes occur, how societies control them, and how the criminal justice system can be improved. |
| Scope | Interdisciplinary: draws on sociology, psychology, law, anthropology, economics, biology, and public policy. |
| Key Question | What causes crime and how can it be prevented? |
| Period | Major Thinkers / Contributions |
|---|---|
| Classical Era (18th c.) | Cesare Beccaria, On Crimes and Punishments – rational choice, free will, proportionate punishment. |
| Positivist Era (19th c.) | Cesare Lombroso – biological determinism (“born criminals”). Enrico Ferri, Raffaele Garofalo – social and psychological factors. |
| Sociological Turn (Early 20th c.) | Émile Durkheim – crime as a normal, functional part of society. Robert K. Merton – strain theory (anomie). |
| Mid‑20th c. | Edwin Sutherland – differential association. Travis Hirschi – social control theory. |
| Late 20th c.–Present | Labeling theory, routine‑activity theory, life‑course criminology, critical/criminal justice studies, neuroscience & genetics. |
| Concept | Meaning | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Crime | Act that violates a law and is punishable by the state. | Theft, assault, cyber‑fraud. |
| Deviance | Behavior that diverges from social norms (may or may not be illegal). | Wearing unconventional clothing. |
| Criminal | Person who commits a crime (as defined legally). | Convicted burglar. |
| Victimology | Study of victims, their characteristics, and their relationship to offenders. | Patterns of domestic‑violence victims. |
| Recidivism | Re‑offending after a previous conviction. | Re‑arrest within two years of release. |
| Social Control | Mechanisms (formal & informal) that regulate behavior. | Laws, family expectations, peer pressure. |
| Labeling | The process by which society tags individuals as “criminals,” influencing self‑identity. | A teen labeled a “troublemaker” after a minor infraction. |
| Routine Activity Theory | Crime occurs when a motivated offender, suitable target, and lack of capable guardian converge. | A car left unlocked in a deserted parking lot. |
| Perspective | Core Idea | Key Proponents | Typical Focus |
|---|---|---|---|
| Classical | Humans are rational actors weighing costs/benefits. | Beccaria, Bentham | Deterrence, punishment severity. |
| Biological/Physiological | Genetic, neurological, or physiological traits predispose individuals to crime. | Lombroso, Eysenck, Raine | Brain imaging, twin studies. |
| Psychological | Personality traits, learning, and mental processes shape criminal behavior. | Freud, Bandura, Mischel | Aggression, impulsivity, conditioning. |